Potent non-urea inhibitors of soluble epoxide hydrolase

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to compounds that exhibit vasodilatory and anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting the activity of soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH). The present invention is also directed to methods of identifying such compounds, and use of such compounds for the treatment of diseases related to dysfunction of vasodilation, inflammation, and/or endothelial cells. In particular non-limiting embodiments, components of the invention may be used to treat hypertension.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No.14/182,175, filed Feb. 17, 2014, which is a continuation of U.S.application Ser. No. 13/178,117, filed Jul. 7, 2011, now U.S. Pat. No.8,653,273, which is a continuation of International Application No.PCT/US2009/057553, filed Sep. 18, 2009, which claims the benefit of U.S.Provisional Application No. 61/143,397, filed Jan. 8, 2009, priority toeach of which is claimed, and the contents of each of which are herebyincorporated by reference in their entireties.

GRANT INFORMATION

The subject matter of the invention was developed, at least in part,under National Institutes of Health Grant No. MLSCN. The United StatesGovernment has certain rights herein.

1. INTRODUCTION

The present invention relates to compounds that exhibit vasodilatory andanti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting the activity of the enzymesoluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH). The present invention is also directedto the use of such compounds for the treatment of diseases related todysfunction of vasodilation, inflammation, and/or endothelial cellfunction. In particular non-limiting embodiments, components of theinvention may be used to treat hypertension.

2. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Epoxide hydrolases are a group of enzymes that are ubiquitous in nature,detected in species ranging from plants to mammals. These enzymes arefunctionally related in that they catalyze the addition of water to anepoxide, resulting in a diol. One subtype of epoxide hydrolase is thesoluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH). sEH plays an important role in themetabolism of lipid epoxides. Endogenous substrates of sEH includeepoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs), which are effective regulators ofblood pressure and inflammation.

The metabolism of arachidonic acid by cytochrome P450 monoxygenase leadsto the formation of various biologically active eicosanoids, and is theprimary route of EET synthesis. Three types of oxidative reactions areknown to occur to the precursor eicosanoids, and one of these, olefinepoxidation (catalyzed by epoxygenases), produces EETs. Four importantEET regioisomers are [5,6]-EET, [8,9]-EET, [11,12]-EET, and [14,15]-EET.These arachidonic acid derivatives function as lipid mediators incertain tissues, potentially through receptor-ligand interactions, andfurther, can be incorporated into tissue phospholipids (Bernstrom et al.1992, J. Biol. Chem. 267:3686-3690).

Hypertension has been shown to result from an impairment of endotheliumdependent vasodilation (Lind, et al., Blood Pressure, 9: 4-15 (2000)).In healthy individuals, endothelium derived hyperpolarizing factor,EDHF, hyperpolarizes vascular smooth muscle tissue resulting inendothelium-dependent relaxation. EETs are known to provoke signalingpathways which lead to cell membrane hyperpolarization, and thereforehave been considered as a candidate EDHF. In vascular tissue,hyperpolarization by EETs results in increased coronary blood flow andimproved recovery of myocardium from ischemia-reperfusion injury. (Wu etal., 272 J. Biol. Chem 12551 (1997); Oltman et al., 83 Circ. Res. 932(1998)). Accordingly, EETs are predicted to be useful in the treatmentof hypertension as well as ischemia-related damage and disease.

In addition to promoting vasodilation, EETs have also been shown toexhibit anti-inflammatory properties. For example, 11,12-EET can reduceinflammation by decreasing the expression of cytokine inducedendothelial cell adhesion molecules (such as VCAM-1) (Node, et al.,Science, 285: 1276-1279 (1999); Campbell, TIPS, 21: 125-127 (2000);Zeldin and Liao, TIPS, 21: 127-128 (2000)). Other studies havedemonstrated that EETs can inhibit vascular inflammation by inhibitingNF-κB and 1κB, which prevents leukocyte adhesion to vascular cell walls.As such, EETs are also predicted to be useful in reducing inflammationand alleviating endothelial cell dysfunction (Kessler, et al.,Circulation, 99: 1878-1884 (1999).

Hydrolysis of EETs by sEH converts the EETs to corresponding diols. Suchdiols have been shown to exhibit diminished vasodilatory andanti-inflammatory effects (Smith et al., 2005, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.USA. 102:2186-91; and Schmelzer et al., 2005, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.USA. 102:9772-7). As inhibition of sEH leads to accumulation of activeEETs, such inhibition provides a novel approach to the treatment ofhypertension and vascular inflammation (Chiamvimonvat et al., 2007, J.Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 50:225-37). To date, the most successful sEHinhibitors reported are 1,3-disubstituted ureas. These urea-basedinhibitors have been shown to treat hypertension and inflammatorydiseases through inhibition of EET hydrolysis in several animal models.However, these inhibitors often suffer from poor solubility andbioavailability, which makes them less therapeutically efficient (Wolfet al., 2006, J. Med. Chem. 335:71-80). Therefore there remains a needfor identifying new sEH inhibitors for therapeutic application.

3. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to compounds of Formula I:

wherein R¹ and R² are described herein below. The present invention alsoprovides salts, esters and prodrugs of the compounds of Formula I.

Additionally, the present invention describes methods of synthesizingcompounds of Formula I.

The present invention further provides a method of inhibiting theactivity of soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH), by contacting the sEH witha compound of Formula I in an amount effective to inhibit the activityof sEH.

In one embodiment, the sEH is expressed by a cell, for example, amammalian cell, and the cell is contacted with the compound of FormulaI.

In another embodiment, the sEH is contacted with the compound of FormulaI in vitro.

The present invention also provides a method of decreasing themetabolism of an epoxyeicosatrienoic acid (EET), and thus increasing thelevel of an EET, by contacting an sEH with a compound of Formula I in anamount effective to increase the level of an EET.

The present invention also provides compositions comprising a compoundof Formula I and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

Also provided is a method for treating, preventing, or controllingdiseases related to dysfunction of vasodilation, inflammation, and/orendothelial cells by administering to an individual in need of suchtreatment a pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound of FormulaI in an amount effective to inhibit sEH activity or increase the levelof EETs in the individual.

Also provided is a method for treating, preventing, or controllingmetabolic syndrome by administering to an individual in need of suchtreatment a pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound of FormulaI in an amount effective to inhibit sEH activity or increase the levelof EETs in the individual.

4. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 Shows a reaction mechanism of a fluorescent high throughputscreen encompassed by the present invention. In the screen, the sEHsubstrate PHOME fluoresces following sEH-catalyzed hydrolysis.

FIG. 2 Shows the structure of sEH inhibitors AMAU and sulfonylisonipecotamide (compound 1).

FIG. 3 Shows the synthesis of compound 6-1 to 6-37 and compound 8-1 to8-51

FIG. 4A-B Shows compounds and their biological results for the tail(i.e. R²) modifications of compound 1.

FIG. 5A-C Shows compounds and their biological results for the head(i.e. R¹) modifications of compound 1.

FIG. 6 Shows the in vivo effect of compound 8-42 on inflammation inducedby Complete Freund's Adjuvant (CFA). Inflammation was assayed bydetermining pain threshold using electronic Von Frey and thermaltesting. A baseline pain threshold was determined before CFAadministration. CFA was administered at day 1, and 8-42 or controlagents were administered 24 hours later. Pain threshold was measured ondays 1, 2 and 5.

5. DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present invention is based on the discovery of compounds thatinhibit sEH enzymatic activity and increase the level of EETs in a cell.In light of the role EETs play in connection with vasodilation,inflammation, and endothelial cell function, the compounds of theinstant invention can be used to increase EET levels and therebyameliorate pathologies associated with diseases relating to vasodilationdysregulation, inflammation, and/or endothelial cell dysfunction.

For clarity and not by way of limitation, this detailed description isdivided into the following sub-portions:

(i) definitions;

(ii) sEH inhibitors;

(iii) methods of treatment; and

(iv) pharmaceutical compositions.

5.1 Definitions

The terms used in this specification generally have their ordinarymeanings in the art, within the context of this invention and in thespecific context where each term is used. Certain terms are discussedbelow, or elsewhere in the specification, to provide additional guidanceto the practitioner in describing the compositions and methods of theinvention and how to make and use them.

The terms “soluble epoxide hydrolase” and “sEH” refer to a polypeptidewhich catalyzes the addition of water to an epoxide substrate, resultingin a diol. In one non-limiting embodiment the epoxide substrate is alipid epoxide. In another non-limiting embodiment, the substrate is anepoxyeicosatrienoic acid (EET).

In one non-limiting embodiment, a soluble epoxide hydrolase which may beinhibited according to the invention is a human soluble epoxidehydrolase. Such soluble epoxide hydrolase may, for example, be encodedby the human epoxide hydrolase 2, cytoplasmic gene (EPHX2) (GenBankaccession number NM_001979), a nucleic acid which encodes the humansoluble epoxide hydrolase polypeptide. Alternatively, soluble epoxidehydrolase can be encoded by any nucleic acid molecule exhibiting atleast 50%, at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 90% or upto 100% homology to the EPHX2 gene (as determined by standard software,e.g. BLAST or FASTA), and any sequences which hybridize under standardconditions to these sequences.

In other non-limiting embodiments, a soluble epoxide hydrolase which maybe inhibited according to the invention may be characterized as havingan amino acid sequence described by GenBank accession numbers: AAG14968,AAG14967, AAG14966 and NP_001970, or any other amino acid sequence atleast 90% homologous thereto.

The soluble epoxide hydrolase may be a recombinant sEH polypeptideencoded by a recombinant nucleic acid, for example, a recombinant DNAmolecule, or may be of natural origin.

The terms “epoxyeicosatrienoic acid” and “EET” refer to a substrate ofthe soluble epoxide hydrolase enzyme. For example, anepoxyeicosatrienoic acid may have the following generic Formula II:

wherein R₄ is C₁₉H₃₁, and wherein an epoxide is bound to any twoconsecutive carbons of Formula II, and further, wherein any twoconsecutive carbons may be covalently bonded to each other by a doublebond.

Substrate EETs, the cleavage of which are inhibited according to theinvention, include effective regulators of blood pressure andcardiovascular function and/or inflammation.

In one such non-limiting embodiment, EET is an eicosanoid produced bythe metabolic activity of a Cytochrome P450 epoxygenase on a fatty acid,such as arachidonic acid.

In another such non-limiting embodiment, the EET is a [5,6]-EET, asdepicted in Formula III:

In another such non-limiting embodiment, the EET is a [8,9]-EET, asdepicted in Formula IV:

In another such non-limiting embodiment, the EET is a [11,12]-EET, asdepicted in Formula V:

In yet another such non-limiting embodiment, the EET is a [14,15]-EET,as depicted in Formula VI:

In yet another non-limiting embodiment, the EET can function as a lipidmediator and can be incorporated into tissue phospholipids (Bernstrom etal. 1992, J. Biol. Chem. 267:3686-3690).

The term “dysfunction of vasodilation” refers to the reduced capabilityof a blood vessel, for example, an artery or arteriole, to dilatenormally in response to an appropriate stimulus, for example, anendothelium derived hyperpolarizing factor, EDHF, and may be manifestedby an inappropriate blood pressure, e.g. hypertension.

The term “endothelial cell dysfunction” refers to a physiologicaldysfunction of normal biochemical processes carried out by endothelialcells, the cells that line the inner surface of all blood vesselsincluding arteries and veins. For example, endothelial cell dysfunctionmay result in an inability of blood vessels, such as arteries andarterioles, to dilate normally in response to an appropriate stimulus.

The term “inflammation” encompasses both acute responses (i.e.,responses in which the inflammatory processes are active) as well aschronic responses (i.e., responses marked by slow progression andformation of new connective tissue).

In certain non-limiting embodiments, a disease associated with adysfunction of vasodilation, inflammation, and/or endothelial cells thatis to be treated by a compound of the instant invention is, by way ofexample, but not by way of limitation, heart disease, hypertension, suchas primary or secondary hypertension, an ischemic condition such asangina, myocardial infarction, transient ischemic neurologic attack,cerebral ischemia, ischemic cerebral infarction, bowel infarction orother ischemic damage to tissue associated with poor perfusion.

In other non-limiting embodiments, a disease associated withinflammation that may be treated by a compound of the instant inventionis, by way of example, but not by way of limitation, type Ihypersensitivity, atopy, anaphylaxis, asthma, osteoarthritis, rheumatoidarthritis, septic arthritis, gout, juvenile idiopathic arthritis,still's disease, ankylosing spondylitis, inflammatory bowel disease,Crohn's disease or inflammation associated with vertebral discherniation.

The term “metabolic syndrome” refers to risk factors that indicate anincreased risk of developing coronary heart disease, type 2 diabetes andother diseases related to plaque buildups in artery walls, such as, forexample, atherosclerosis, stroke and peripheral vascular disease.Metabolic syndrome risk factors include, for example, abdominal obesity(i.e. excessive fat tissue in and around the abdomen), atherogenicdyslipidemia (i.e. blood fat disorders such as for example, hightriglycerides, low HDL cholesterol and high LDL cholesterol, that fosterplaque buildups in artery walls), elevated blood pressure, insulinresistance or glucose intolerance, prothrombotic state (e.g., highfibrinogen or plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 in the blood) and/or aproinflammatory state (e.g., elevated C-reactive protein in the blood).

The term ‘alkyl’ refers to a straight or branched C₁-C₂₀ (preferablyC₁-C₆) hydrocarbon group consisting solely of carbon and hydrogen atoms,containing no unsaturation, and which is attached to the rest of themolecule by a single bond, e.g., methyl, ethyl, n-propyl,1-methylethyl(isopropyl), n-butyl, n-pentyl, 1,1-dimethylethyl(t-butyl).

The term “alkenyl” refers to a C₂-C₂₀ (preferably C₁-C₄) aliphatichydrocarbon group containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond andwhich may be a straight or branched chain, e.g., ethenyl, 1-propenyl,2-propenyl(allyl), iso-propenyl, 2-methyl-1-propenyl, 1-butenyl,2-butenyl.

The term “cycloalkyl” denotes an unsaturated, non-aromatic mono- ormulticyclic hydrocarbon ring system (containing, for example, C₃-C₆)such as cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl. Examples ofmulticyclic cycloalkyl groups (containing, for example, C₆-C₁₅) includeperhydronapththyl, adamantyl and norbornyl groups bridged cyclic groupor sprirobicyclic groups, e.g., spiro (4,4) non-2-yl.

The term “cycloalkalkyl” refers to a cycloalkyl as defined abovedirectly attached to an alkyl group as defined above, that results inthe creation of a stable structure such as cyclopropylmethyl,cyclobutylethyl, cyclopentylethyl.

The term “alkyl ether” refers to an alkyl group or cycloalkyl group asdefined above having at least one oxygen incorporated into the alkylchain, e.g., methyl ethyl ether, diethyl ether, tetrahydrofuran.

The term “alkyl amine” refers to an alkyl group or a cycloalkyl group asdefined above having at least one nitrogen atom, e.g., n-butyl amine andtetrahydrooxazine.

The term “aryl” refers to aromatic radicals having in the range of about6 to about 14 carbon atoms such as phenyl, naphthyl, tetrahydronapthyl,indanyl, biphenyl.

The term “arylalkyl” refers to an aryl group as defined above directlybonded to an alkyl group as defined above, e.g., —CH₂C₆H₅, and—C₂H₄C₆H₅.

The term “heterocyclic” refers to a stable 3- to 15-membered ringradical which consists of carbon atoms and one or more, for example,from one to five, heteroatoms selected from the group consisting ofnitrogen, oxygen and sulfur. For purposes of this invention, theheterocyclic ring radical may be a monocyclic or bicyclic ring system,which may include fused or bridged ring systems, and the nitrogen,carbon, oxygen or sulfur atoms in the heterocyclic ring radical may beoptionally oxidized to various oxidation states. In addition, thenitrogen atom may be optionally quaternized; and the ring radical may bepartially or fully saturated (i.e., heteroaromatic or heteroarylaromatic).

The heterocyclic ring radical may be attached to the main structure atany heteroatom or carbon atom that results in the creation of a stablestructure.

The term “heteroaryl” refers to a heterocyclic ring wherein the ring isaromatic.

The term “heteroarylalkyl” refers to heteroaryl ring radical as definedabove directly bonded to alkyl group. The heteroarylalkyl radical may beattached to the main structure at any carbon atom from alkyl group thatresults in the creation of a stable structure.

The term “heterocyclyl” refers to a heterocylic ring radical as definedabove. The heterocyclyl ring radical may be attached to the mainstructure at any heteroatom or carbon atom that results in the creationof a stable structure.

The term “halogen” refers to radicals of fluorine, chlorine, bromine andiodine.

5.2 sEH Inhibitors

The present invention provides compounds of the following Formula I:

wherein R¹ and R² are independently selected for each occurrence fromthe group consisting of phosphorous (e.g., substituted phosphorous suchas diphenylphosphine), substituted or unsubstituted benzothiazol,substituted or unsubstituted pyridyl, substituted or unsubstitutednaphthyl, substituted or unsubstituted phenyl, substituted orunsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl,substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstitutedcycloalkalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted arylalkyl, substituted orunsubstituted heteroarylalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl,substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclic, —C(O)R³ and —S(O)₂R³, whereinR³ is independently selected for each occurrence from the groupsconsisting of substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, substituted orunsubstituted cycloalkyl; substituted or unsubstituted aryl; substitutedor unsubstituted arylalkyl; substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl;substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclic, substituted or unsubstitutednaphthyl, substituted or unsubstituted phenyl, substituted orunsubstituted thienyl, substituted or unsubstituted benzothienyl,substituted or unsubstituted pyridyl, substituted or unsubstitutedindol, substituted or unsubstituted isoquinolyl, substituted orunsubstituted quinolyl, and substituted or unsubstituted benzothiazol.

The substituents in the ‘substituted alkyl’, ‘substituted cycloalkyl’,‘substituted cycloalkalkyl’, ‘substituted arylalkyl’, ‘substitutedaryl’, ‘substituted heterocyclic’, ‘substituted heteroarylalkyl,’‘substituted heteroaryl’, ‘substituted naphthyl’, ‘substituted phenyl’,‘substituted thienyl’, ‘substituted benzothienyl’, ‘substitutedpyridyl’, ‘substituted indol’, ‘substituted isoquinolyl’, ‘substitutedquinolyl’, or ‘substituted benzothiazol’ may be the same or differentwith one or more selected from the groups hydrogen, halogen, acetyl,nitro, oxo (═O), thio (═S), —NO₂, —CF₃, —OCH₃, -Boc or optionallysubstituted groups selected from alkyl, alkoxy, aryl, arylalkyl,heteroaryl, and heterocyclic ring. A “substituted” functionality mayhave one or more than one substituent.

In one preferred non-limiting embodiment, R¹ is an unsubstitutedcycloalkyl.

In other preferred non-limiting embodiments, R¹ is an unsubstituted orsubstituted aryl having one or more substituent which is a halogen, morepreferably fluorine or chlorine (where multiple substituents are presentthey may be the same or different).

In preferred non-limiting embodiments, R² is —S(O)₂R³. In specificpreferred non-limiting embodiments R³ is a substituted or unsubstitutedaryl. In further specific preferred non-limiting embodiments, R² is—S(O)₂R³, where R³ is a substituted aryl and the one or more substituentis selected from the group consisting of a hydrophobic alkyl group(s),such as the methyl group(s) present on toluene, xylene, and mesitylene,and a halide. In preferred non-limiting embodiments, at least one ofsaid substituent of —S(O)₂R³, where R³ is a substituted aryl, is in theortho position. In preferred non-limiting embodiments, the substituentof —S(O)₂R³, where R³ is a substituted aryl, is a bromide or fluoride ormethyl at the ortho position.

In non-limiting embodiments within the scope of Formula I, the presentinvention provides compounds of the following Formula VII:

wherein R¹ is selected from the group consisting of phosphorous (e.g.,substituted phosphorous such as diphenylphosphine), substituted orunsubstituted benzothiazol, substituted or unsubstituted pyridyl,substituted or unsubstituted naphthyl, substituted or unsubstitutedphenyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstitutedcycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted orunsubstituted cycloalkalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted arylalkyl,substituted or unsubstituted heteroarylalkyl, substituted orunsubstituted heteroaryl, substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclic,—C(O)R³ and —S(O)₂R³, wherein R³ is independently to selected for eachoccurrence from the groups consisting of substituted or unsubstitutedalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl; substituted orunsubstituted aryl; substituted or unsubstituted arylalkyl; substitutedor unsubstituted heteroaryl; substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclic,substituted or unsubstituted naphthyl, substituted or unsubstitutedphenyl, substituted or unsubstituted thienyl, substituted orunsubstituted benzothienyl, substituted or unsubstituted pyridyl,substituted or unsubstituted indol, substituted or unsubstitutedisoquinolyl, substituted or unsubstituted quinolyl, and substituted orunsubstituted benzothiazol.

The substituents in the ‘substituted alkyl’, ‘substituted cycloalkyl’,‘substituted cycloalkalkyl’, ‘substituted arylalkyl’, ‘substitutedaryl’, ‘substituted heterocyclic’, ‘substituted heteroarylalkyl,’‘substituted heteroaryl’, ‘substituted naphthyl’, ‘substituted phenyl’,‘substituted thienyl’, ‘substituted benzothienyl’, ‘substitutedpyridyl’, ‘substituted indol’, ‘substituted isoquinolyl’, ‘substitutedquinolyl’, or ‘substituted benzothiazol’ may be the same or differentwith one or more selected from the groups hydrogen, halogen, acetyl,nitro, oxo (═O), thio (═S), —NO₂, —CF₃, —OCH₃, -Boc or optionallysubstituted groups selected from alkyl, alkoxy, aryl, arylalkyl,heteroaryl, and heterocyclic ring. A “substituted” functionality mayhave one or more than one substituent.

In one non-limiting embodiment, when R¹ is a substituted phenyl, and thesubstituent is an unsubstituted alkyl, the alkyl is at least a C₃ alkyl,for example, a propyl or butyl.

In further non-limiting embodiments of the invention, R¹ in Formula I orFormula VII is selected from the compounds listed in Table 1:

TABLE 1 Compound R¹ 8-1 

8-2 

8-3 

8-4 

8-5 

8-6 

8-7 

8-8 

8-9 

8-10

8-11

8-12

8-13

8-14

8-15

8-16

8-17

8-18

8-19

8-20

8-21

8-22

8-23

8-24

8-25

8-26

8-27

8-28

8-29

8-30

8-31

8-32

8-33

8-34

8-35

8-36

8-37

8-38

8-39

8-40

8-41

8-42

8-43

8-44

8-45

8-46

8-47

8-48

8-49

8-50

In preferred non-limiting embodiments, R¹ in Formula I or Formula VII isselected from the group consisting of the following compounds:

In other non-limiting embodiments within the scope of Formula I, thepresent invention provides compounds of the following Formula VIII:

wherein R² is selected from the group consisting of phosphorous (e.g.,substituted phosphorous such as diphenylphosphine), substituted orunsubstituted benzothiazol, substituted or unsubstituted pyridyl,substituted or unsubstituted naphthyl, substituted or unsubstitutedphenyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstitutedcycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted orunsubstituted cycloalkalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted arylalkyl,substituted or unsubstituted heteroarylalkyl, substituted orunsubstituted heteroaryl, substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclic,—C(O)R³ and —S(O)₂R³, wherein R³ is independently selected for eachoccurrence from the groups consisting of substituted or unsubstitutedalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl; substituted orunsubstituted aryl; substituted or unsubstituted arylalkyl; substitutedor unsubstituted heteroaryl; substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclic,substituted or unsubstituted naphthyl, substituted or unsubstitutedphenyl, substituted or unsubstituted thienyl, substituted orunsubstituted benzothienyl, substituted or unsubstituted pyridyl,substituted or unsubstituted indol, substituted or unsubstitutedisoquinolyl, substituted or unsubstituted quinolyl, and substituted orunsubstituted benzothiazol.

The substituents in the ‘substituted alkyl’, ‘substituted cycloalkyl’,‘substituted cycloalkalkyl’, ‘substituted arylalkyl’, ‘substitutedaryl’, ‘substituted heterocyclic’, ‘substituted heteroarylalkyl,’‘substituted heteroaryl’, ‘substituted naphthyl’, ‘substituted phenyl’,‘substituted thienyl’, ‘substituted benzothienyl’, ‘substitutedpyridyl’, ‘substituted indol’, ‘substituted isoquinolyl’, ‘substitutedquinolyl’, or ‘substituted benzothiazol’ may be the same or differentwith one or more selected from the groups hydrogen, halogen, acetyl,nitro, oxo (═O), thio (═S), —NO₂, —CF₃, —OCH₃, -Boc or optionallysubstituted groups selected from alkyl, alkoxy, aryl, arylalkyl,heteroaryl, and heterocyclic ring. A “substituted” functionality mayhave one or more than one substituent.

In preferred non-limiting embodiments, R² is —S(O)₂R³. In specificpreferred non-limiting embodiments R³ is a substituted or unsubstitutedaryl. In further specific preferred non-limiting embodiments, R² is—S(O)₂R³, where R³ is a substituted aryl and the one or more substituentis selected from the group consisting of a hydrophobic alkyl group(s),such as the methyl group(s) present on toluene, xylene, and mesitylene,and a halide. In preferred non-limiting embodiments, at least one ofsaid substituent of —S(O)₂R³, where R³ is a substituted aryl, is in theortho position. In preferred non-limiting embodiments, the substituentof —S(O)₂R³, where R³ is a substituted aryl, is a bromide or fluoride ormethyl at the ortho position.

In specific non-limiting embodiments of the invention, R² in Formula Ior VIII is selected from the compounds listed in Table 2:

TABLE 2 Compound R² 1

6-1

6-2

6-3

6-4

6-5

6-6(a)

6-6(b)

6-7

6-8

6-9

6-10

6-11

6-12

6-13

6-14

6-15

6-16

6-17

6-18

6-19

6-20

6-21

6-22

6-23

6-24

6-25

6-26

6-27

6-28

6-29

6-30

6-31

6-32

6-33

6-34

6-35

6-36

In other preferred non-limiting embodiments, R² in Formula I or FormulaVIII is selected from the group consisting of the following compounds:

In another preferred embodiment, the compound defined by Formula I,Formula VII and/or Formula VIII is selected from the group consisting ofthe following compounds:

Compounds of Formula I may, without limitation, be synthesized by anymeans known in the art. For example, methyl isonipecotate may beprotected with benzyl chloroformate, and then converted into an acidchloride by removing the methyl ester followed by treatment with oxalylchloride. Coupling of the acid chloride with 2,4-dichlorobenzylaminefollowed by Palladium catalyzed hydrogenation produces an amine, whichmay be reacted with a variety of sulfonyl chlorides, acid chlorides andchloroformates to produce compounds 6-6 and 6-10.

In other non-limiting embodiments, Methyl isonipecotate may be treatedwith mesitylenesulphonyl chloride followed by conversion into acidchloride by removing the methyl ester followed by treatment with oxalylchloride. The acid chloride may then be reacted with various amines toproduce compounds 8-9, 8-14, 8-37, 8-42, and 8-47

In other non-limiting embodiments, the compounds of Formula I, VII andVIII may be synthesized according to the following scheme:

wherein R¹ and R² are selected from the compounds listed in Table 2 andTable 1.

5.3 Methods of Treatment

In accordance with the invention, there are provided methods of usingthe compounds of Formula I. The compounds used in the invention may beused to inhibit the degradation of sEH substrates having beneficialeffects and/or inhibit the formation of metabolites that have adverseeffects. The methods of the invention may be used to treat a variety ofdiseases related to dysfunction of vasodilation, inflammation, and/orendothelial cells. For example, the methods of the invention are usefulfor the treatment of conditions including, but not limited to,hypertension, such as primary or secondary hypertension, ischemicconditions such as angina, myocardial infarction, transient ischemicneurologic attack, cerebral ischemia, ischemic cerebral infarction,bowel infarction, etc. Additionally, inflammatory conditions including,but not limited to, type I hypersensitivity, atopy, anaphylaxis, asthma,osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, septic arthritis, gout, juvenileidiopathic arthritis, still's disease, ankylosing spondylitis,inflammatory bowel disease, Crohn's disease or inflammation associatedwith vertebral disc herniation may be treated according to the methodsof the present invention. The invention may also be used to reduce therisk of ischemic damage to tissue associated with atherosclerosis.

According to the invention, a “subject” or “patient” is a human ornon-human animal. Although the animal subject is preferably a human, thecompounds and compositions of the invention have application inveterinary medicine as well, e.g., for the treatment of domesticatedspecies such as canine, feline, and various other pets; farm animalspecies such as bovine, equine, ovine, caprine, porcine, etc.; wildanimals, e.g., in the wild or in a zoological garden; and avian species,such as chickens, turkeys, quail, songbirds, etc.

In one embodiment, the subject or patient has been diagnosed with, orhas been identified as having an increased risk of developing, a diseaserelated to dysfunction of vasodilation, inflammation, and/or anendothelial cell dysfunction.

In other non-limiting embodiments, the present invention provides formethods of reducing the risk of damage resulting from diseases relatedto dysfunction of vasodilation, inflammation, and/or endothelial celldysfunction to a tissue of a subject comprising administering to thesubject, an effective amount of a composition according to theinvention.

The present invention provides for methods of treating diseases relatedto dysfunction of vasodilation, inflammation, and/or endothelial celldysfunction in a subject in need of such treatment by administration ofa therapeutic formulation which comprises a compound of Formula I. Inparticular embodiments, the formulation may be administered to a subjectin need of such treatment in an amount effective to inhibit sEHenzymatic activity. Where the formulation is to be administered to asubject in vivo, the formulation may be administered systemically (e.g.by intravenous injection, oral administration, inhalation, etc.), or maybe administered by any other means known in the art. The amount of theformulation to be administered may be determined using methods known inthe art, for example, by performing dose response studies in one or moremodel system, followed by approved clinical testing in humans.

In another non-limiting embodiment of the invention, a subject to betreated with a compound of Formula I suffers from metabolic syndrome,wherein administering a compound of Formula I to the subject reduces thesubject's risk of developing coronary heart disease, type 2 diabetes andother diseases related to plaque buildups in artery walls, such as, forexample, atherosclerosis, stroke and peripheral vascular disease.

In another non-limiting embodiment, the invention provides a method forinhibiting the activity of a soluble epoxide hydrolase which comprisescontacting the soluble epoxide hydrolase with a compound of Formula I inan amount effective to inhibit soluble epoxide hydrolase activity.

In other non-limiting embodiments, the invention provides a method fortreating a disease related to dysfunction of vasodilation, inflammation,and/or endothelial cell dysfunction in an individual, which methodcomprises administering to the individual an effective amount of acompound according to Formula I.

In certain non-limiting embodiments of the invention, an effectiveamount of compound is an amount which results in a blood level ofcompound which is at least 20% or at least 50% or at least 90% of theIC₅₀. Non-limiting specific examples of compounds of the invention andtheir IC₅₀ values are shown in FIGS. 4 and 5.

According to the invention, an effective amount is an amount of acompound of Formula I which reduces the clinical symptoms of diseasesrelated to dysfunction of vasodilation, inflammation, and/or endothelialcells. For example, an effective amount is an amount of a compound ofFormula I that reduces abnormally high arterial blood pressure (forexample but not by way of limitation, abnormally high systolic pressure,diastolic pressure, or both, wherein systolic blood pressure is at least140 mm Hg and a diastolic blood pressure is at least 90 mm Hg), orinflammation in a subject, or increases the flow of blood to an organ ortissue, for example but not by way of limitation, the heart or brain ina subject.

In a further non-limiting embodiment, the effective amount of a compoundof Formula I may be determined via an in vitro assay. By way of example,and not of limitation, such an assay may utilize an sEH enzyme and asubstrate which can report the level of sEH activity through adetectable signal, such as, for example, a change in luminescence,coloration, temperature, or fluorescence. In one embodiment, the assayis a high throughput fluorescent assay that utilizes a recombinant humansEH and a water soluble α-cyanocarobonate epoxide (PHOME) substrate(see, e.g., Wolf et al., 2006, Anal. Biochem 335:71-80). According tothe invention, the assay can be initiated by sEH-catalyzed hydrolysis ofthe non-fluorescent PHOME substrate followed by spontaneous cyclizationto give a cyanohydrin. Under basic condition, the cyanohydrin rapidlydecomposes into a highly fluorescent product. Fluorescence withexcitation at 320 nm and emission at 460 nm can be recorded at theendpoint of the reaction cascade with or without the presence of assaysamples. When the hydrolysis reaction is performed in the presence of acompound of Formula I, a decrease in recorded fluorescence indicatesinhibition of sEH enzymatic activity, wherein a greater decrease influorescence indicates a greater inhibition of sEH.

In one non-limiting embodiment, an effective amount of a compound ofFormula I may be an amount that results in a local concentration ofcompound at the therapeutic site (such as, but not limited to, the serumconcentration) of from at least about 0.01 nM to about 2 μM, preferablyfrom at least about 0.01 nM to about 200 nM, and more preferably from atleast about 0.01 nM to about 50 nM.

In another non-limiting embodiment, an effective amount of a compound ofFormula I may be correlated with the compound's ability to inhibit sEHactivity by at least about 5-10%, more preferably from at least about10-20%, more preferably from at least about 20-30%, more preferably fromat least about 30-40%, more preferably from at least about 40-50%, morepreferably from at least about 50-60%, more preferably from at leastabout 60-70%, more preferably from at least about 70-80%, morepreferably from at least about 80-90%, and more preferably from at leastabout 90-100%, when the compound is administered in the in vitro assay,wherein a greater level of sEH inhibition at a lower concentration inthe in vitro assay is correlative with the compound's therapeuticefficacy.

In a further non-limiting embodiment, the compound is administered at aconcentration of 200 nM in the in vitro assay.

In a preferred non-limiting embodiment, an effective amount of acompound of Formula I may be correlated with the compound's ability toinhibit sEH activity by about at least 60% when the compound isadministered at a concentration of 200 nM in the in vitro assay.

In other preferred non-limiting embodiments, an effective amount of acompound of Formula I may be correlated with the compound's ability toinhibit sEH activity by about at least 70% when the compound isadministered at a concentration of 200 nM in the in vitro assay.

In other preferred non-limiting embodiments, an effective amount of acompound of Formula I may be correlated with the compound's ability toinhibit sEH activity by about at least 80% when the compound isadministered at a concentration of 200 nM in the in vitro assay.

In other preferred non-limiting embodiments, an effective amount of acompound of Formula I may be correlated with the compound's ability toinhibit sEH activity by about at least 90% when the compound isadministered at a concentration of 200 nM in the in vitro assay.

In other preferred non-limiting embodiments, an effective amount of acompound of Formula I may be correlated with the compound's ability toinhibit sEH activity by about at least 95% when the compound isadministered at a concentration of 200 nM in the in vitro assay.

In other preferred non-limiting embodiments, an effective amount of acompound of Formula I may be correlated with the compound's ability toinhibit sEH activity by about 100% when the compound is administered ata concentration of 200 nM in the in vitro assay.

In another non-limiting embodiment, an effective amount of a compound ofFormula I may be correlated with the compound's ability to inhibit sEHactivity by at least about 50% compared to a control cell line that wasnot contacted with the candidate compound (i.e., IC₅₀), wherein thecompound is tested at a concentration ranging from at least about 200 nMto about 0.01 nM, preferably from at least about 100 nM to about 0.01nM, and more preferably from at least about 10 nM to about 0.01 nM inthe in vitro assay, wherein such inhibition of sEH activity at theabove-described concentrations is correlative with the compound'stherapeutic efficacy.

In other non-limiting embodiments, an effective amount of a compound ofFormula I may be correlated with the compound's ability to inhibit sEHactivity by about at least 50% when the compound is administered at aconcentration of about 90 nM in the in vitro assay.

In other non-limiting embodiments, an effective amount of a compound ofFormula I may be correlated with the compound's ability to inhibit sEHactivity by about at least 50% when the compound is administered at aconcentration of 80 nM in the in vitro assay.

In other non-limiting embodiments, an effective amount of a compound ofFormula I may be correlated with the compound's ability to inhibit sEHactivity by about at least 50% when the compound is administered at aconcentration of about 40 nM in the in vitro assay.

In other non-limiting embodiments, an effective amount of a compound ofFormula I may be correlated with the compound's ability to inhibit sEHactivity by about at least 50% when the compound is administered at aconcentration of about 20 nM in the in vitro assay.

In other non-limiting embodiments, an effective amount of a compound ofFormula I may be correlated with the compound's ability to inhibit sEHactivity by about at least 50% when the compound is administered at aconcentration of about 10 nM in the in vitro assay.

In other non-limiting embodiments, an effective amount of a compound ofFormula I may be correlated with the compound's ability to inhibit orreduce inflammation or pain, for example, mechanical allodynia orthermal hyperalgesia, in vivo, wherein a greater reduction ininflammation or pain at a lower concentration compared to a controlsubject that is not administered the compound is correlative with thecompound's therapeutic efficacy. By way of example, and not oflimitation, such an in vivo assay may comprise administering a compoundof Formula I to a test subject, for example, a mouse or rat, followed byan assay to determine a change in inflammation or pain in the subject.The assay used to measure inflammation or pain may be any assay known inthe art, for example, behavioral assays such as an electronic Von Freytest, tail flick assay or thermal paw withdrawal test.

In one embodiment, inflammation or pain may be induced in the subjectusing methods known in the art, such as, for example, by administeringComplete Freund's Adjuvant (CFA) to the test subject. The inflammationor pain may be induced prior to, at the same time as, or afteradministration of the compound of Formula I. When inflammation or painis induced before the administration of a compound of Formula I, theinflammation or pain may be induced at least 5 minutes, at least 30minutes, at least 1 hour, at least 5 hours, at least 10 hours, at least24 hours, at least 2 days, at least 5 days, or at least 1 week or morebefore the compound of formula I is administered. The level ofinflammation or pain in the test subject may be assayed followinginduction.

In another embodiment of the invention, the level of inflammation orpain in the test subject may be assayed before inflammation or pain isinduced. Inflammation or pain may be assayed again when the compound offormula I is administered, and at intervals following administration ofthe compound, for example, at intervals of at least 5 seconds, at least10 seconds, at least 30 seconds, at least 1 minute, at least 5 minutes,at least 30 minutes, at least 1 hour, at least 5 hours, at least 10hours, at least 24 hours, at least 2 days, at least 5 days, or at least1 week, or combinations thereof, following administration of thecompound.

According to the invention, the component or components of apharmaceutical composition of the invention may be introduced byintravenous, intra-arteriole, intramuscular, intradermal, transdermal,subcutaneous, oral, intraperitoneal, intraventricular, and intrathecaladministration.

In yet another embodiment, the therapeutic compound can be delivered ina controlled or sustained release system. For example, a compound orcomposition may be administered using intravenous infusion, animplantable osmotic pump, a transdermal patch, liposomes, or other modesof administration. In one embodiment, a pump may be used (see Sefton,1987, CRC Crit. Ref. Biomed. Eng. 14:201; Buchwald et al., 1980, Surgery88:507; Saudek et al., 1989, N. Engl. J. Med. 321:574). In anotherembodiment, polymeric materials can be used (see Langer and Wise eds.,1974, Medical Applications of Controlled Release, CRC Press: Boca Raton,Fla.; Smolen and Ball eds., 1984, Controlled Drug Bioavailability, DrugProduct Design and Performance, Wiley, N.Y.; Ranger and Peppas, 1983, J.Macromol. Sci. Rev. Macromol. Chem., 23:61; Levy et al., 1985, Science228:190; During et al., 1989, Ann. Neurol., 25:351; Howard et al., 9189,J. Neurosurg. 71:105). In yet another embodiment, a controlled releasesystem can be placed in proximity of the therapeutic target, i.e., theheart or a it) blood vessel, thus requiring only a fraction of thesystemic dose (see, e.g., Goodson, 1984, in Medical Applications ofControlled Release, supra, Vol. 2, pp. 115-138). Other controlledrelease systems known in the art may also be used.

5.4 Pharmaceutical Compositions

The compounds and compositions of the invention may be formulated aspharmaceutical compositions by admixture with a pharmaceuticallyacceptable carrier or excipient.

In one non-limiting embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition maycomprise an effective amount of a compound of Formula I and aphysiologically acceptable diluent or carrier. The pharmaceuticalcomposition may further comprise a second drug, for example, but not byway of limitation, an anti-hypertension drug or an anti-inflammatorydrug.

The phrase “pharmaceutically acceptable” refers to molecular entitiesand compositions that are physiologically tolerable when administered toa subject. Preferably, but not by way of limitation, as used herein, theterm “pharmaceutically acceptable” means approved by a regulatory agencyof the federal or a state government or listed in the U.S. Pharmacopeiaor other generally recognized pharmacopeia for use in animals, and moreparticularly in humans. The term “carrier” refers to a diluent,adjuvant, excipient, or vehicle with which the compound is administered.Such pharmaceutical carriers can be sterile liquids, such as water andoils, or, for solid dosage forms, may be standard tabletting excipients.Water or aqueous solution saline solutions and aqueous dextrose andglycerol solutions are preferably employed as carriers, particularly forinjectable solutions. Suitable pharmaceutical carriers are described in“Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences” by E. W. Martin, 18th Edition, orother editions.

In a specific embodiment, the therapeutic compound can be delivered in avesicle, in particular a liposome (see Langer, 1990, Science249:1527-1533; Treat et al., 1989, in Liposomes in the Therapy ofInfectious Disease and Cancer, Lopez-Berestein and Fidler eds., Liss:New York, pp. 353-365; Lopez-Berestein, ibid., pp. 317-327; seegenerally Lopez-Berestein, ibid.).

EXAMPLES Example 1: Screening Assay to Identify Inhibitors of sEH

A fluorescent assay was employed for high throughput screening (HTS) ofinhibitors of she. This HTS employs recombinant human sEH and a watersoluble α-cyanocarobonate epoxide (PHOME) as the substrate (Wolf et. al.Anal Biochem. 2006, 335, 71). As shown in FIG. 1, the assay wasinitiated by sEH-catalyzed hydrolysis of the non-fluorescent substratefollowed by spontaneous cyclization to give a cyanohydrin. Under basiccondition, the cyanohydrin rapidly decomposed into a highly fluorescentproduct. Fluorescence with excitation at 320 nm and emission at 460 nmwas recorded at the endpoint of the reaction cascade with or without thepresence of assay samples.

From a compound collection provided by the NIH Roadmap project, avariety of hits were identified having low micromolar to nanomolarpotency (See the screen results published in Pubchem [AID:1026]).Several non-urea compounds exhibited therapeutically acceptableactivities in this screening. Among these, sulfonyl isonipecotamide 1(FIG. 2), a nanomolar inhibitor (IC₅₀=20.0 nm) structurally similar topreviously reported piperidine-based sEH inhibitors such as AMAU (FIG.2), was of particular interest (Jones et al. Bioorg Med Chem Lett. 2006,16, 5212).

To identify alternative inhibitory compounds, a secondary library wasrapidly assembled by modifying the amide head group and the sulfonamidetail group of 1. The design strategy was to keep one group in tact whilemodifying the other, in an attempt to identify a “super” compoundgenerated from a combination of the best head and tail. The synthesis isoutlined in FIG. 3. Methyl isonipecotate 2 (FIG. 3) was first protectedwith benzyl chloroformate, and then converted into acid chloride 4 (FIG.3) by removing the methyl ester and treating with oxalyl chloride.Coupling of 4 with 2,4-dichlorobenzylamine followed by Palladiumcatalyzed hydrogenation afforded amine 5 (FIG. 3), which reacted with avariety of sulfonyl chlorides, acid chlorides and chloroformates to givethe final products 6-1 to 6-36. On the other hand, 2 was treated withmesitylenesulphonyl chloride and similarly converted into acid chloride7 (FIG. 3). In parallel, reaction of 7 with various amines led to thetarget compounds 8-1 to 8-50.

New compounds were first screened at concentrations of 2 μM, 400 nm and200 nm using the fluorescence assay described above. The IC₅₀s werefurther determined for those compounds showing more than 50% inhibitionat the concentration of 200 nm. The biological results for the tail andhead modification are summarized in FIG. 4A-B and FIG. 5A-C,respectively.

As illustrated in FIG. 4A-B, the diverse tail modification did notimprove inhibitory potency over the mesitylenesulfonamide identifiedfrom the original screen (i.e. compound 1). However, several structureactivity relationships were observed in this series. First, thefunctionality of sulfonamide is important for potent inhibition. Greatloss of activities was observed for amides (6-26, 6-27 and 6-29)compared with the corresponding sulfonamides. Aromatic sulfonamidesappear to be more favorable as all tested alkylsulfonamides are poorinhibitors. Substitution on the aromatic ring can further affect theactivities. Hydrophobic alkyl groups and halides are generallypreferred. Interestingly, their positive effect is more pronounced atortho position. For example, a bromide or fluoride at ortho position(6-6, 6-10) confers nanomolar potency but not at para position (6-19).Deleting the ortho methyl groups in 1 led to less active compounds 6-1and 6-24.

In the optimization of the head group, a set of structurally diversifiedamides were first screened. All disubstituted amides tested wereinactive (results not shown), suggesting the proton in NH is essentialto sEH inhibition. Previous studies with urea-based inhibitors haveshown that one NH of the urea, which forms a salt bridge with thecatalytic nucleophile Asp³³³ in the active side of sEH, is required forinhibitory activity (Argiriadi et al., J Biol Chem. 2000, 275(20),15265). It becomes apparent that the amide in positive hit correspondsto the urea functionality serving as the primary pharmacophore. Avariety of primary amines were selected to replace 2,4-dichloridebenzylamine moiety, including those frequently found in urea inhibitors.As shown in FIG. 5A-C, the amide is quite tolerant to modification andnanomolar potency is retained with various scaffolds. N-benzylamide 8-9(IC₅₀=42.0 nm) and N-cyclohexylamide 8-14, (IC₅₀=16.4 nm) representfavorable choices for further optimization. Exhaustively adjusting thebenzyl group led to improved potency in 8-37 (IC₅₀=12.7 nm). The mostnoticeable SAR illustrated by this modification is that halides such aschloride and Fluoride seem favored for the substitutions of the benzylgroup. Modification of cyclohexylamide was successful and resulted inseveral inhibitors with a potency that achieved a single digitalnanomolar range. As demonstrated by compounds 8-42 (IC₅₀=7.9 nm) and8-47 (IC₅₀=12.6 nm), wherein an extra methylene added to the cyclohexylring enhanced inhibitory activity. In contrast, polar atoms (N, O) inthe ring reduce inhibition to the micromolar range (8-49, 8-50). TheseSARs are consistent with previous results obtained for urea derivatives(Kim et al. J Med Chem. 2005, 48, 3621).

In summary, a series of potent non-urea sEH inhibitors have beensuccessfully identified via high throughput screens. Improved potencywas sought through SAR-guided modification. The compound 8-42 with anIC₅₀ of 7.9 nm represents the most potent non-urea sEH inhibitoridentified in this study.

Example 2: In Vivo Effect of sEH Inhibitors on Mechanical Allodynia andThermal Hyperalgesia

The effectiveness of a compound of Formula I in reducing painsensitivity was examined in vivo. Inflammation was induced by injectionof Complete Freund's Adjuvant (CFA) into the footpad of six mice at day1 of the study. 24 hours following CFA administration, two test animalsreceived a subcutaneous injection of compound 8-42. Compound 8-42 wasdissolved in 100% DMSO prior to administration. As a positive control,an analgesic effect was elicited in one animal by administering theProtein Kinase G (PKG) inhibitor RPG (exemplary RPGs include Rp-cGMPs)intrathecally 24 hours after CFA administration. As a negative control,one animal was administered an intrathecal injection of saline and asubcutaneous injection of 100% DMSO 24 hours after CFA. Additionally,two animals were administered a subcutaneous injection of compound 8-42and an intrathecal injection of RPG 24 hours after CFA to determine ifthe two compounds could achieve an additive or synergistic analgesiceffect.

Pain sensitivity was measured using two behavioral assays. Theelectronic Von Frey test was used to measure mechanical allodynia in thecontrol and test animals, while the thermal paw withdrawal test was usedto measure thermal hyperalgesia. The electronic Von Frey test consistedof application of a filament against the rodent's paw, whereby pawwithdrawal caused by the stimulation is registered as a response. Thecorresponding force (resistance) applied was recorded in grams. Thethermal paw withdrawal test comprised applying a thermal stimulus to therodent's foot, whereby the withdrawal latency was measured as aresponse.

A baseline sensitivity to pain was first measure prior to CFA treatment,and again after administration of CFA. Pain sensitivity was then assayed24 hours later at day 2 following the administration of compound 8-42 orthe control agents, and again at day 5. As shown in FIG. 6, 8-42 did notreduce CFA-induced mechanical allodynia or thermal hyperalgesia comparedto RPG and the control agents. Furthermore, the combination of 8-42 andRPG did not produce an additive or synergistic reduction in CFA-inducedmechanical allodynia or thermal hyperalgesia compared to RPG or 8-42treatment alone.

The present invention is not to be limited in scope by the specificembodiments described herein. Indeed, various modifications of theinvention in addition to those described herein will become apparent tothose skilled in the art from the foregoing description and theaccompanying figures. Such modifications are intended to fall within thescope of the appended claims.

Patents, patent applications, publications, product descriptions,GenBank Accession Numbers, and protocols are cited throughout thisapplication, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein byreference in their entireties for all purpose.

What is claimed is:
 1. A compound of Formula 1:

wherein R¹ is independently selected for each occurrence from the groupconsisting of

wherein R² is independently selected for each occurrence from the groupconsisting of

and further wherein, when R² is

and R¹ is a substituted phenyl, wherein the substituent is anunsubstituted alkyl, the alkyl is at least a C₃ alkyl; andpharmaceutically acceptable salts and prodrugs thereof.
 2. The compoundof claim 1, wherein R¹ is selected from the group consisting of asubstituted aryl having one or more substituent which is a halogen. 3.The compound of claim 2, wherein the halogen is selected from the groupconsisting of fluorine or chlorine.
 4. The compound of claim 1, whereinR² is —S(O)₂R³, and wherein R³ is selected from the group consisting ofa substituted aryl having one or more substituent and an unsubstitutedaryl.
 5. The compound of claim 4, wherein R³ is a substituted aryl andthe one or more substituent is selected from the group consisting of ahydrophobic alkyl group and a halide.
 6. The compound of claim 4,wherein R³ is a substituted aryl having one or more substituent, andwherein at least one of the one or more substituents is in the mhoposition.
 7. The compound of claim 6, wherein the one or moresubstituents in the ortho position is selected from the group consistingof a bromide, fluoride and methyl.
 8. The compound of claim 1, whereinR¹ is selected from the group consisting of:


9. The compound of claim 1, wherein R² is selected from the groupconsisting of:


10. The compound of claim 1, wherein the compound is formulated as apharmaceutical formulation.
 11. A compound of Formula I:

wherein: R1 is

and R2 is


12. A pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound of Formula I:

wherein: R1 is

and R2 is